Although some of these bioassays have already been standardized by different international organizations, there are still many which are also promising tools for environmental global toxicity evaluation and should be fully validated and standardized for regulatory purposes. The main information is shown in tables that include the microorganisms, their main characteristics (reporter gene systems, transducer types for biosensors), and their main environmental applications as well as relevant references. The most used toxicity endpoints for this type of biosensors are the alteration of photosynthetic activity (optical and amperometric biosensors) and the inhibition of enzymes such as alkaline phosphatase (APA) or sterases (mostly conductometric biosensors). There is also a section dedicated to microalgal-based biosensors given their ecological relevance as primary producers, easiness of culture and immobilization in different matrices, ability to acclimate to low nutrient conditions, and ubiquity in aquatic environments. bioreporter in conjunction with inducible bioreporters in quantifi cation and toxicity evaluation of heavy metals in solution detection of oxidative damage. Oxidative stress is caused by an unbalance between reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the defenses against them and is one of the main mechanisms of toxicity for most pollutants. Bioassays for detecting oxidative stress (both bioluminescent and fluorescent bioreporters) are also mentioned and discussed.
A detailed description of their main characteristics and environmental applications is reported.
Both natural and recombinant microorganisms are considered.
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